In France, Austria, Germany, and some U.S. states, the use of disposable masks in public places were even imposed by national or local governments (Prata et al., 2021; CDC, 2021). 2(6), pp. It appears that global dependence on plastics might even increase from pre-COVID-19 pandemic levels, as epidemics are predicted to increase due to climate change. Manufacturers of masks generally favour production close to consumers to build robust supply chains. Thus, despite later regurgitation, frequent ingestion of plastic wastes in landfills by overwintering seagulls has been associated with death and a significant decrease in their reproduction due to chemical body-burdens (Seif et al., 2018). They are part of the personal protective equipment (PPE) used by health workers and are different from other types of masks used to protect from pollution or dust.1 Surgical masks are loose fitting and designed to trap sprays and droplets from coughing and sneezing.2 N95 respirators fit more tightly and can also protect from smaller airborne particles. However, none counted such debris in the environmental matrixes where such PPE were found. ,k&@$&0yL`p "I@lSs^7Q$w z PMC legacy view For instance, microplastics can contribute to spreading antibiotic-resistant genes (Hu et al., 2019) and increased plasmid transfer (Arias-Andres et al., 2018). Masks may play an even greater role in the next phase of the crisis, when lockdowns are gradually lifted and economic activity resumes, while the virus remains a threat. Sullivan G.L., Delgado-Gallardo J., Watson T.M., Sarp S. An investigation into the leaching of micro and nano particles and chemical pollutants from disposable face masks - linked to the COVID-19 pandemic. Governments should prevent hoarding and speculation: producers of non-woven fabric have reported receiving orders from companies not manufacturing masks wanting to resell at a higher price. official website and that any information you provide is encrypted Wang et al. In China, there was no regulation prohibiting exports but a form of compulsory purchase, with all orders in January and February going to the government and exports resuming in March. Masks can often be incorrectly disposed of in wastewater (Rasmussen, 2020) or in landfills (Prata et al., 2020), where they can release microfibers that will be exposed to high concentrations of contaminants and microorganisms. One can argue that the presence of fibres could be a result of increased laundry activities, while metals are also commonly found in urbanised areas; but it cannot rule out potential contribution (even the slightest) from disposable masks as both fish and shrimps proved to interact with such items (Table 2). Some countries have facilitated trade in masks and other protective equipment by removing tariffs or by suspending licensing and certification requirements. An official website of the United States government. Therefore, they may be more susceptible to the adverse effects of littered face masks. Conversely, synergistic effects call for urgent mitigation measures, particularly when they occur at low intensities of each stressor (i.e., above the legal levels). Microplastics and copper effects on the neotropical teleost. Long-term microplastic retention causes reduced body condition in the langoustine, Woods M.N., Stack M.E., Fields D.M., Shaw S.D., Matrai P.A. One hundred and three companies were involved in stepping up production so that mask manufacturers would not face a shortage for their key input.15, Providing face masks to healthcare workers and COVID-19 patients all over the world already brings global demand to a level above pre-crisis production capacity. Watts A.J., Urbina M.A., Corr S., Lewis C., Galloway T.S. For example, the white storks (Ciconia ciconia) have been reported to feed on landfill wastes, which comprises 68.8% of the diet of these animals in Spain (Avila, Salamanca, Zamora) (Peris, 2003). : conceptualisation, supervision, writing - review and editing. Rebelein A., Int-Veen I., Kammann U., Scharsack J.R.P. Abandoned Covid-19 personal protective equipment along the Bushehr shores, the Persian Gulf: an emerging source of secondary microplastics in coastlines. Fully automated production lines can produce up to 1000 masks per minute for the best-performing, although somewhere between 35 and 200masks per minute is more usual. It can also result in chronic effects, for instance, by restricting feeding to the point of starvation, facilitating predation, exhausting the animal, causing strangulations, infections, severe wounds, and even amputations. one thousandth of the diameter of a human hair). While some EU countries producing masks have enacted export bans, an EU-wide regulation was adopted on 15March 2020 introducing export authorisations. Primarily made to protect healthcare workers from preventing occupational hazards, the use of disposable masks also became a preferential option for non-medical professionals based on their higher filtration capacity over reusable alternatives (Prata et al., 2021). Sullivan et al. Brando M.L., Braga K.M., Luque J.L. hbbd```b``k*j"!, Luksamijarulkul P., Aiempradit N., Vatanasomboon P. Microbial contamination on used surgical masks among hospital personnel and microbial air quality in their working wards: a hospital in Bangkok. Polyester (63150 um) obtained from fabric. Saliu et al. : conceptualisation, supervision, writing - review and editing. The efficacy of plant-based ionizers in removing aerosol for COVID-19 mitigation. It would also be unrealistic for smaller or poorer economies to become self-sufficient in the whole array of protective equipment needed. Rodrigues J.P., Duarte A.C., Santos-Echeanda J., Rocha-Santos T. Significance of interactions between microplastics and POPs in the marine environment: a critical overview. For example, the combined effect of microplastics and copper (a metal that can leach out from face masks (Sullivan et al., 2021) promoted genotoxicity, neurotoxicity and physiological effects on the neotropical teleost Prochilodus lineatus, with greater effects (for some endpoints) that each contaminant alone (Roda et al., 2020). But some countries do not have the manufacturing capacity, the specialised machines nor, more importantly, access to inputs. Disposable masks have been found in urban areas, with densities of approximately 0.001 items m2 in Canada (Ammendolia et al., 2021) and Peru (De-la-Torre et al., 2021), and <0.3 item m2 in Kenya (Okuku et al., 2021) (Table 1 Plastic pollution is one of the greatest environmental challenges, with known adverse ecological, economic and human health effects (De-la-Torre et al., 2021). Once in open environments, single-use-masks will likely undergo fragmentation by physicochemical (e.g., UV radiation, wind, currents) and biochemical (enzymatic activity) processes (Fadare and Okoffo, 2020; Prata et al., 2020), resulting in a myriad of small particles such as micro- and nano-plastics (< 5 mm in size and < 1um in size, respectively; Frias and Nash, 2019). Arias-Andres M., Klmper U., Rojas-Jimenez K., Grossart H.-P. Microplastic pollution increases gene exchange in aquatic ecosystems. Pigments, dyes and fluorescent brightening agents for plastics: An overview. Intestine alterations, gut inflammation, and metabolism disruption. However, intense use and mismanagement of COVID-19 waste are imposing a severe environmental challenge. While the most efficient level 2 surgical masks can be reserved for healthcare workers (with N95 respirators for the most exposed of them), lower grades of masks could be used in other sectors or re-usable washable masks (as already recommended by some governments and health authorities). Liu P., Shi Y., Wu X., Wang H., Huang H., Guo X., Gao S. Review of the artificially-accelerated aging technology and ecological risk of microplastics. For example, up to 102.4 fibres/kg was observed in shoreline sediment (75% represented by polypropylene and polyethylene, including from synthetic nonwoven materials) collected in the Magdalena River Huila, Colombia (Martnez Silva and Nanny, 2020). Materials to manufacture masks are usually transported by sea, but several manufacturers report having switched to air transport to ensure that deliveries are on time. Other solutions may be needed in the short term, such as the use of alternative masks (i.e. Results indicated that one tested mask submitted to 180 h UV-light irradiation and vigorous stirring in artificial seawater could release up to 173,000 fibres/day. Chowdhury H., Chowdhury T., Sait S.M. Christie R.M. Certification procedures should be expedited to allow masks produced by new companies to be traded as soon as possible. A multi-pronged approach is needed to mitigate risks. The SARS-CoV-2 virus (responsible for COVID-19 disease) has a diameter of approximately 60 to 140 nanometres (i.e. Saliu et al. This paper provides a critical review of COVID-19 face mask occurrence in diverse environments and their adverse physiological and ecotoxicological effects on wildlife. Export ban with exemptions for manufacturers not shipping by mail, Export ban. Reduction in food intake and excretion, damage in the gastrointestinal walls, oxidative stress. While varying across countries, including due to the extent of preparedness of the health infrastructure, masks have sometimes been in short supply, not because of a shortage of goods but because they were not reaching health workers. Such face masks mostly rely on three layers: an inner layer composed of soft fibres; a middle layer consisting of a melt-blown filter; and an outer layer consisting of nonwoven fibres that confirms water-resisting properties (Fadare and Okoffo, 2020). The face mask value chain is illustrated in Figure1. Rakib M.R.J., De-la-Torre G.E., Pizarro-Ortega C.I., Dioses-Salinas D.C., Al-Nahian S. Personal protective equipment (PPE) pollution driven by the COVID-19 pandemic in Coxs Bazar, the longest natural beach in the world. An open trade environment is key for the diffusion of such technologies. Leads R.R., Burnett K.G., Weinstein J.E. about navigating our updated article layout. Brandon-Jones, Squire, Autry and Petersen (2014), A Contingent Resource-Based Perspective of Supply Chain Resilience and Robustness, Journal of Supply Chain Management, Vol. Tariffs or export licenses can delay trade, in addition to increasing prices. : conceptualisation, supervision, writing - review and editing. Delhi: As Masks, PPE Kits Head to Landfills, You Can't Shrug Off Share of Blame. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Chua M.H., Cheng W., Goh S.S., Kong J., Li B., Lim J.Y.C., Mao L., Wang S., Xue K., Yang L., Ye E., Zhang K., Cheong W.C.D., Tan B.H., Li Z., Tan B.H., Loh X.J. Measures such as nationalisations and expropriations direct or indirect could also have implications for future investment. OECD, Beyond Containment: Health Systems Responses to COVID-19 in the OECD, updated 16 April 2020. https://www.who.int/publications-detail/advice-on-the-use-of-masks-in-the-community-during-home-care-and-in-healthcare-settings-in-the-context-of-the-novel-coronavirus-(2019-ncov)-outbreak. With a great contribution from petrochemical polymers with high molecular weight, disposable face masks do not readily (bio)degrade in open environments (Prata et al., 2020). Both ingestion and entanglement can be detrimental to the organisms' survival and reproduction by limiting their mobility and feeding ability. [. The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have influenced the work reported in this paper. Accessibility In the short-term, access to new technologies or products will occur through trade. Masks are therefore effective only for a few hours (four hours for surgical masks and one day for N95 respirators) and there is a risk of contamination when manipulating them or re-using them. Among bio-based solutions, polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) and poly(lactic)acid (PLA) obtained from microorganisms (including microalgae) have raised scientific attention, as they can be biodegradable (i.e., able to mineralise into water, carbon dioxide, and biomass in the presence of biological activity). Interactions with COVID-19 litter, particularly masks (and, to a lesser extent, latex gloves and disposable wipes), have been reported by academics, ordinary citizens, and wildlife stakeholders, for several aquatic and terrestrial species (Hiemstra et al., 2021). Coppock R.L., Galloway T.S., Cole M., Fileman E.S., Queirs A.M., Lindeque P.K. more than 1million per day).14, China addressed the issue of the supply of non-woven fabric early on by also establishing a plan to increase the production of melt-blown polypropylene. To meet this demand, it is important to continue to increase supply. Terrestrial organisms also proved to ingest microfibres, such as the soil-dwelling (detritivore), annelids (Lumbricus terrestris) and the shredder snails (Achatina fulica) (Kutralam-Muniasamy et al., 2020) (Table 2 Viruses are very small and require specific fabric for effective filtering. To this share can add up face masks leaked from landfill facilities due to their lightweight, particularly in developing countries where such an end-of-life option is preferable for treating municipal solid wastes from COVID-19 (Corburn et al., 2020; Gandhiok, 2021; Sabour et al., 2020). It also outlines potential remediation strategies to mitigate the environmental challenge impose by COVID-19-related litter. The regular use of masks in the population (as a protection against pollution or during the flu season) can also make production economically sustainable (and is one reason production capacity was higher in East Asia than in the rest of the world at the beginning of the COVID-19 crisis). Surgical masks are basic products and are relatively cheap (when they are not in short supply).6 However, their production involves several types of inputs and the assembly of different parts in a relatively sophisticated process.7 The filtering property of masks is a function of a multi-layered structure made of non-woven fabric. However, biodegradable options from PLA or PHA (or other options) should be environmentally friendly, implying not being blended with hazardous chemicals. More emphasis should be put on the access to inputs and the development of capacity in the production of melt-blown polypropylene non-wovens. HHS Vulnerability Disclosure, Help of lower grade) for the general population. Zhang R., Wang M., Chen X., Yang C., Wu L. Combined toxicity of microplastics and cadmium on the zebrafish embryos (, Ziajahromi S., Kumar A., Neale P.A., Leusch F.D. Stocks can also be built at the country level, through national strategies, but a globally co-ordinated approach could also ensure that all countries are prepared and create solidarity mechanisms that would further mitigate risks. It is widely recognised that plastic pollution can directly affect wildlife (e.g., via ingestion and entanglement), regardless of their habitat, physiology, behavioural patterns. Wildlife interactions with littered disposable masks have been reported daily, with the potential for adverse effects in a short- and long-run (Fig. The ingestion and consequential effects of microfibres (particularly PP, PE, and polyesters which are also the most common polymers found on disposable face masks) have been reported in several organisms from aquatic environments and with different feeding guilds, such as crabs (Carcinus maenas, Eremita analoga), small crustaceans (Hyalella Azteca, Gammarus fossarum, Daphnia magna), and bivalves (Mytillus edulis, Corbicula fluminea) as filtrators; anemones (Aiptasia pallida) and fish (Danio rerio) as predators; annelids (Tubidex tubidex) as sediment-dwelling (detritivores) (as reviewed by Kutralam-Muniasamy et al., 2020; Singh et al., 2020). Jin I.K., Youn-Joo A. J.C.P. Microplastic fibers an underestimated threat to aquatic organisms? Effect of microplastics in water and aquatic systems. Surgical face masks as a potential source for microplastic pollution in the COVID-19 scenario. Anastopoulos I., Pashalidis I. Single-used surgical face masks, as a potential source of microplastics: do they act as pollutant carriers? Disruptions in transport and logistics have made the delivery of masks to final customers more complicated. However, at the end of February, there were reports that single masks were being sold for USD20. No effects on survival and bacterial infection (for polyester). ), peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus), swans (Cygnus olor), mallards (Anas platyrhynchos), American robins (Turdus migratorius), crabs (Carcinus maenas), bats (Eptesicus serotinus), foxes (Vulpes vulpes), hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus), checkered pufferfish (Sphoeroides testudineus) (as reviewed by Hiemstra et al., 2021; and data available at https://www.covidlitter.com). Nose strips are added in order to bend the mask around the nose bridge, made from metal (aluminium, galvanised iron or steel). In addition, the shortage of masks in some countries has led to thefts and the hijacking of some shipments. Here, the main challenge has been in assessing needs in real-time, and prioritising deliveries and anticipating changes at a time when the whole health system is under stress. The presence of both plastic fragments and chemicals contaminants from disposable face masks in natural environments is, therefore, expected, with the potential for causing ecotoxicological effects on wildlife at different levels of biological organisation (from cell to communities). not recovered) confirmed COVID-19 cases according to John Hopkins University Coronavirus Resource Center. Mask mobilization during wartime from 5 billion to 200 million per day, Sina Finance, 16 March 2020. Microplastics and Nanoplastics: Would They Affect Global Biodiversity Change? Parking lots and hospitals (1.601.33 10. For example, production has been multiplied by 3 in France. Song Y., Cao C., Qiu R., Hu J., Liu M., Lu S., Shi H., Raley-Susman K.M., He D. Up- take and adverse effects of polyethylene terephthalate microplastics fibers on terrestrial snails (, Stokes G. OceanAsia; 2020. Based on the number of companies in different countries that were able to convert their production lines, it seems that the assembly stage is less of a bottleneck. Additionally, plastic marine litter can act as a substrate, favouring some species over others, creating unique communities in these persistent and drifting substrates (Zettler et al., 2013). Source: OECD, based on information provided by manufacturers. Estimating marine plastic pollution from COVID-19 face masks in coastal regions. Critical Component of Protective Masks in Short Supply, Wall Street Journal, 7 March 2020. For example, In Jakarta, Indonesia, approximately 250 disposable masks might be entering aquatic environments daily (Cordova et al., 2021). Face masks have a particular interest as the dominant COVID-19 related litter found in the environment (as discussed in Section 2). Suwardi, A., Ooi, C.C., Daniel, D., Tan, C.K.I., Li, H., Liang, O.Y.Z., Tang, Y.K., Chee, J.Y., Sadovoy, A., Jiang, S.-Y., Ramachandran, S., Ye, E., Kang, C.W., Cheong, W.C.D., Lim, K.H., Loh, X.J., 2021. C.M. Such polymer allied with lanosol (a naturally occurring substance that imparts fire and microbe resistance) can be electrospun into nanofibre membranes and subsequently carbonised to form masks. As masks are now recommended for a broader use by the general population and an increasing number of countries require citizens to wear them in public places, the estimates provided above for China are likely to be applicable to other countries, leading to a demand for masks possibly ten times higher than before the crisis in countries affected by the virus. Disposable masks release microplastics to the aqueous environment with exacerbation by natural weathering. Careers. The term face mask generally refers to surgical masks (also known as procedure masks or medical masks). Thus, if no remediation strategy is put into place, it is expected to increment their numbers in natural environments, with the potential for adverse effects at different biological organisation levels. Ingestion (even of relatively low quantities) of plastic debris by seabird Ardenna carneipes induced a significant negative effect on bird morphometrics and blood calcium levels, along with an increment in the uric acid, cholesterol, and amylase concentrations (Lavers et al., 2019), revealing that it may have a negative impact on fitness. Tavares D.C., da Costa L.L., Rangel D.F., de Moura J.F., Zalmon I.R., Siciliano S. Nests of the brown booby (. This is not surprising, as, in an international online survey (Australia, U.S., U.K., Singapore, Sri Lanka and India), 19% of individuals assumed that they recklessly throw away their disposable face masks (Selvaranjan et al., 2021). Anatopoulos and Anastopoulos and Pashalidis (2021) also underline the role of microplastics released from disposable face masks as dye carriers. pp. COVID-19 has caused a dramatic shortage in the supply of face masks1, which is mainly explained by a surge in demand. Post COVID-19 pandemic_ biofragmentation and soil ecotoxicological effects of microplastics derived from face masks. Another bottleneck in the face mask GVC during COVID-19 is seen at the distribution stage. Most of the potential new manufacturers are currently held back by the shortage in PP non-woven fabric.10. Re-usable masks may still be one of the solutions to address the current shortage. COVID-19 waste increased 5% the debris found in riverine sediments. In Kenya, beaches presented 10 times more disposable masks than in the streets (Okuku et al., 2021) (Table 1). The main producer of masks in France, Kolmi-Hopen, is also an affiliate of Medicom (Canada). Disposable face masks also contain these additives to enhance their properties, such as antiviral and antibacterial barriers, dye compounds, fragrances. Recent publications reported the abundance of COVID-19-related litter in several environments, wildlife interaction with such items, and the contaminants that can be released from such protective equipment that has the potential to induce ecotoxicological effects. More attention should also be given to the supply of key inputs. Malafaia G., Nascimento .F., Estrela F.N., Guimares A.T.B., Ribeiro F., da Luz T.M., de Lima Rodrigues A.S. Green toxicology approach involving polylactic acid biomicroplastics and neotropical tadpoles: (eco)toxicological safety or environmental hazard? Thus, certification of such masks should be complemented with tests addressing their environmental performance. First, they prevent some countries with no production capacity from gaining access to masks. PP (20100 20 um) obtained from containers. Chinese Taipei and Korea) distribute two or three per week for people above 15years old. The importance of keeping supply chains open was emphasised in a joint ministerial statement by Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Canada, Chile, Myanmar, New Zealand, and Singapore affirming their commitment to ensuring supply chain connectivity amidst the COVID-19 crisis. Synergistic effects were also observed for cadmium combined with microplastics in the common carp Cyprinus carpio, with greater effects on biochemical and immunological parameters than individual stressors (Banaee et al., 2019). About one-third of tested people are positive, thus suggesting a population of at least 6million suspected cases. 2020. Several countries are now implementing measures to curb prices and protect consumers. Responses of, Banaee M., Soltanian S., Sureda A., Gholamhosseini A., Haghi B.N., Akhlaghi M., Derikvandy A. Impact of microplastic fibers from the degradation of nonwoven synthetic textiles to the Magdalena River water column and river sediments by the city of Neiva, Huila (Colombia). WWF International In the Disposal of Masks and Gloves, Responsibility is Required. Chinese Taipei was the first economy to ban exports of masks on 24January 2020; many others have subsequently introduced export bans (Table1). Hiemstra A.-F., Rambonnet L., Gravendeel B., Schilthuizen M. The effects of COVID-19 litter on animal life. Although the percentage of COVID-19 face mask litter seems to be considerably lower than single-use plastics (e.g., packaging), their constitution (e.g., layers of polymeric material; ear-hook) and composition (additives and plasticisers) raises equal environmental concerns if their use and consumption patterns remain considerably high for the coming years (as in 20202021). Organisms' entanglement can result in immediate death through immobilisation (as observed in the American robin T. migratorius), or by suffocation or drowning. An important increase in supply is required in the short-term, requiring government planning and incentives for firms to convert existing assembly lines and create additional capacity. 1 Washable masks, where only the filter is replaced (still ensuring the required level of protection), have also been developed by some companies. China pushes all-out production of face masks in virus fight, Nikkei Asian Review, 19February 2020. 1578 face masks and 804 gloves were found over a cumulative area of 43,577 m, S4, S5, S7 (most populated beaches) were the most polluted sites, PE and PP (2070 20 um) obtained from a 3 y old rope, PET (621400 31528 um) obtained from a PET fabric, PP (35 mm 0.2 mm) obtained from ropes, 5 items included in 1.5 g of squid; 8 months, Compromised feeding rate, body mass, and metabolic rate, Polyester (100400 um) obtained from clothing. Strategic stocks create such demand, but only with regular public or private procurement contracts. In China, the population above 15years old is 1.1billion, thus giving an estimate of between 320 and 480million of masks per day for the whole population to have access to a similar number of masks each week. 50(3), pp. The carmaker BYD, a joint venture between SAIC and General Motors, DaddyBaby (a manufacturer of baby goods), Foxconn (the company manufacturing iPhones for Apple), and China Petroleum and Chemical are all examples of companies that started to produce face masks at a large scale (i.e. endstream endobj startxref Nam S.-H., Seo Y.-M., Kim M.-G. Bisphenol A migration from polycarbonate baby bottle with repeated use. No Shortage of Masks at the Beach - OCEANS ASIA [WWW Document]. will also be available for a limited time. It is estimated that approximately 0.15 million tons to 0.39 million tons of mismanaged COVID-19 plastic waste could end up in global oceans within a year (Chowdhury et al., 2021). The entrapment of organisms in plastic litter has been frequently documented. PET (< 5 mm) obtained from pink PET fleece, Adult mortality and adverse embryonic development, Nylon and PET (10 4 m; 23 100 m; 17 60 m; 23 70 m) purchased from Goodfellow, Compromised feeding activity, alteration in sinking rates, Nylon, polyester and PP (501000 30 um) obtained from fluorescent ropes. It is known that, for instance, antimicrobial substances are designed to inhibit the growth of microorganism, whereas skin protectors can include nanoparticles. Aragaw T.A. (2021) provided the first evidence on microfibers and micro and nanoplastics released from disposable face masks. Jeong C.-B., Kang H.-M., Lee M.-C., Kim D.-H., Han J., Hwang D.-S., Souissi S., Lee S.-J., Shin K.-H., Park H.G., Lee J.-S. Second, domestic transport and logistics infrastructure, and domestic distribution, have also been disrupted by COVID-19. Surgical masks and N95 respirators are used to prevent the spread of respiratory infections. %PDF-1.6 % Types of Face Masks Used Due to COVID-19 South Korea 2020. While N95 respirators are designed to protect the wearer from infections, surgical masks are mostly used to prevent the wearer from disseminating germs and viruses (such as in the case of a surgeon operating on a patient).

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