The outermost layer, the exosporium, is not present in spores of all species, and is the primary site of contact with the environment. Copyright 2016 Patrignani and Lanciotti. Effects of milk treatment with dynamic high pressure on microbial population as well as on the lipolytic and proteolytic profiles of Crescenza cheese. doi: 10.1111/j.1472-765X.1994.tb00878.x, Lanciotti, R., Vannini, L., Patrignani, F., Iucci, L., Vallicelli, M., Ndagijimana, M., et al. 11, 111. Although high pressure homogenization and microfluidization are efficient methods for producing CNF, these processes have two major bottlenecks: the high energy consumption due to the need for many passes to reach cellulose particles at the nanoscale; and frequent clogging (Dufresne, 2012; Wang et al., 2015). Rev. Aliment. The 1940s witnessed the earliest nanoemulsion prepared using microfluidization, high pressure homogenization, or phase-inversion thermal methods that could increase the bioactivity of hydrophobic and hydrophilic compounds by improving their physicochemical properties, solubility, and stability. doi: 10.1080/10408410601023516, Diels, A. M. J., Callewaert, L., Wuytack, E. Y., Masschalck, B., and Michiels, C. W. (2004). Among the stress conditions applied, it was observed that only the thermal shock after one HPH cycle reduced the colony count of 2.3 log CFU/ml and induced a DPA release up to 57%. Inactivation of Escherichia coli by high-pressure homogenisation is influenced by fluid viscosity but not by water activity and product composition. Specifically, the baseline refolding step, performed at a protein concentration of less than 0.5g/L, now requires a refolding volume equivalent to 30-fermentation volumes. (2005), utilizing an axial-flown through orifice valve, found in milk treated at 250 MPa, with a Tin of 45C and a Tout of 76.8, a 6 log reduction of Pseudomonas fluorescens AFT 36, resulting from the application of pressure and temperature increase. (1999). Lett. (Ultra) high pressure homogenization for continuous high pressure sterilization of pumpable foods-a review. It has also been shown that the valve geometry plays an important role in the resulting size distribution [8], In this contribution a ball valve from a lab scale homogenizer was modeled, see figure 1. Finally, the combined use of this alternative technology with other non-thermal technologies will be considered within this review. Table 38.4. Although several Authors have tested the same matrixes, and in some case the same microbial species, different inactivation results was achieved, particularly using the multi-pass approach. Food Microbiol 44, 204210. 70, 10071010. Technol. From a safety point of view, Vannini et al. Food Agric. For Y. enterocolitica and L. monocytogenes, the treatment apparently did not induce irreversible damage to the surviving cells; in fact, although the lag phase was prolonged when pressures higher than 400 bar were used, the max increased with the applied pressure and the maximal cell numbers attained (A + K) were independent on the level of the applied pressure. Int. Although L. monocytogenes was slightly sensitive to pressure, the combination of the two stress factors induced a significant viability loss within 3 h and an extension of lag phases in skim milk during incubation at 37C. Vannini, L., Lanciotti, R., Baldi, D., and Guerzoni, M. E. (2004). Maximum lethality values were observed in samples treated at 400 MPa with 15 and 10% fat (7.95 and 7.46 log CFU/ml), respectively, while in skimmed and 3.6% fat milk samples, complete inactivation was not achieved and, during the subsequent 15 days of storage at 4C, L. monocytogenes was able to recover. Food Res. Microbiol. (2009) inoculated L. innocua ATCC51742 and E. coli, as surrogate for foodborne pathogens, in apple and carrot juice, containing or not nisin (0-10 IU), and treated from 0.1 to 350 MPa. Microbiol. Food Sci. Also Wuytack et al. The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. The study was performed both in model (BHI) and real systems consisting of an egg-based mayonnaise type product. Conventional techniques, including mechanical mixing [71] and high pressure homogenisation [72,73], apply shear stresses that work against the interfacial tension to elongate and rupture droplets during emulsion formation. Int. homogenizer debee beei homogenizers Also Guerzoni et al. pressure homogenizer hopeland Therefore, although HPH be recognized as an effective method for milk pasteurization, in this specific case, HPH process is not able to guarantee the commercial sterility of milk, being necessary the association of the homogenization with another preservative method, as refrigeration. Lett. Prog. Interactions between high pressure homogenization and antimicrobial activity of lizozyme and lactoperoxidase. Additionally, these low homogenization pressure treatments, applied directly to probiotic strains, modified their interaction with the small intestines of BALB mice and induced a higher IgA response compared with untreated mice in a strain- and feeding period-dependent way (Tabanelli et al., 2012). doi: 10.1016/S0168-1605(01)00673-0, Hayes, M. G., Fox, P. F., and Kelly, A. L. (2005). 46, 112. High-pressure homogenization as a non-thermal technique for the inactivation of microorganisms. 104, 693701. Effects of high-pressure homogenization on the survival of Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris in a laboratory medium. (2011). ScienceDirect is a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V. ScienceDirect is a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V. FIGURE 1. Rev. Biotechnol. At the expire date the levels of Listeria monocytogenes, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus and Salmonella spp. Microbiol. Phase I Clinical Manufacturing Downstream Process Yield Summary. Lipid materials are the precursors to hydrocarbon biofuels and valid for upgrading, so we extract lipid materials by either solvent or supercritical carbon dioxide. Thus, the intensification work focuses on improving the yield of IB recovery, and increasing the throughput of refolding as well as the subsequent chromatography steps. doi: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2008.00974.x, Lanciotti, R., Chaves-Lopez, C., Patrignani, F., Paparella, A., Guerzoni, M. E., Serio, A., et al. The head may contain one valve (single-stage homogenization) or two valves in series (two-stage homogenization). Food Microbiol. Additionally, the buffer requirements would drive up the production cost and make the product economically undesirable. The fragmented drops recombine when they encounter each other, to reduce their interfacial area. 22, 165168. Int. doi: 10.1017/S0022029904000524, Hayes, M. G., and Kelly, A. L. (2003). doi: 10.1016/S0928-0987(97)10026-4, Betoret, E., Betoret, N., Rocculi, P., and Dalla Rosa, M. (2015). 12, 764770. Figure1. State of the art of homogenizer able to reach 200 MPa (GEA Niro Soavi, Italy). Inactivation of Escherichia coli K-12 exposed to pressures in excess of 300 mpa in a high-pressure homogenizer. Brinez, W. J., Roig-Sagues, A. X., Herrero, M. H., and Lopez, B. G. (2007). homogenizer pressure cell lysis rochester c3 instrument pharmaceutical biophysics urmc edu aspx biology structural Moreover, the combination of the enzyme and HPH significantly affected the recovery and growth dynamics of the considered species. Essential oils: their antibacterial properties and potential applications in foods. Jian Gong, Fengqi You, in Computer Aided Chemical Engineering, 2014. In the homogenizing valve the fluid is forced under pressure through a small orifice between the valve and the valve seat. 6:712. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2015.00712. High pressure homogenisation of raw whole bovine milk (a) effects on fat globules size and other properties. The Author suggested that the large supramolecular structure is disrupted under pressure, allowing the components to move freely and become independent of the original structure. The effects induced by the temperature have to be necessarily taken into account in HPH, since, during homogenization, a rise of the temperature (about 2.5C per 10MPa), related to the fluid food employed, is observed in the fluid downstream of the valve. This mechanical treatment causes irreversible changes in the fibers, increasing their bonding potential by modifying the morphology and size of the fibers (Kamel, 2007; Gardner etal., 2008). 57, 785788. doi: 10.1016/j.tim.2013.03.001, Roig-Sagues, A. X., Asto, E., Engers, I., and Hernandez-Herrero, M. M. (2015). Dairy Sci. The enzyme addition enhanced the immediate pressure efficacy on almost all the considered species as indicated by their instantaneous viability loss following the treatment. The typical production of commercial nanofibrillated cellulose uses a mechanical method consisting of refining and high pressure homogenization steps. The most relevant EU projects relative to the effects of HPH on food safety can be envisaged in the EU project HighQ RTE FP6-FOOD-023140 Innovative non-thermal processing technologies to improve the quality and safety of ready-to-eat (RTE) meals-HighQ RTE, EU Craft project UHPH 512626, Development and Optimisation of a Continuous Ultra High Pressure Homogenizer for Application on Milks and Vegetable Milks and the EU project FUNENTECH 232603 study of functionality, nutritional and safety aspects of liquid foods, liquid food preparations, and cosmetics processed by ultrahigh-pressure homogenization. 57, 1925. The 1940s witnessed the earliest nanoemulsion prepared using microfluidization, 12th International Symposium on Process Systems Engineering and 25th European Symposium on Computer Aided Process Engineering. Food Microbiol. For the suspension to acquire a translucent gelatinous appearance, an indication that cellulose fibers have been disintegrated, several passes through the homogenizer are required (1015 passes) (Dufresne, 2012; Henriksson et al., 2007; Khalil et al., 2014). Food Eng. Homogenizer able to process fluid matrices at pressure ranging between 20100 MPa are nowadays employed in the dairy beverage, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries mainly to reduce particle size and consequently increase stability of emulsions in order to avoid creaming and coalescence phenomena (Figure 1). The pressure may drop locally below the water vapor pressure, causing some evaporation to occur. Food Protect. Received: 23 March 2016; Accepted: 07 July 2016;Published: 03 August 2016. J. Patrignani et al. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2004.02196.x, Diels, A. M., and Michiels, C. W. (2006). Effect of sub-lethal high pressure homogenization treatments on in vitro functional and biological properties of lactic acid bacteria. Inactivation of Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris using high pressure homogenization and dimethyl dicarbonate. doi: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2013.12.023, Keywords: high pressure homogenization, ultra high pressure homogenization, pathogenic species, inactivation, food matrices, non-thermal technologies, spores, enzymes, Citation: Patrignani F and Lanciotti R (2016) Applications of High and Ultra High Pressure Homogenization for Food Safety. Ultra-high-pressure homogenization UHPH system for producing high-quality vegetable-based beverages: physicochemical, microbiological, nutritional and toxicological characteristics. The HPH has been proposed also for the bacterial spore inactivation, generally in combination with other physic-chemical hurdles for spore surviving and/or germination due to the ability of bacterial spores to survive to the most prohibitive conditions (Wuytack et al., 2002; Bevilacqua et al., 2007, 2012; Chaves-Lpez et al., 2009; Chen et al., 2013; Roig-Sagues et al., 2015). Compared with current technologies, such as bulk mixing, high pressure homogenization, and double emulsion techniques, electrospray has three potential advantages. Inactivation of Escherichia coli and Listeria innocua in apple and carrot juices using high pressure homogenization and nisin. These Authors showed that a HPH at 150 MPa for multiple passes was able to decontaminate egg white inoculated with S. enterica SDMZ 9898. According to these data, fat content increase enhanced the maximum temperature reached during UHPH treatment and this could have contributed to the lethal effect achieved. Since the safety features are prerequisite both for traditional and innovative products, this review is focused on the effects of HPH on foodborne pathogen inactivation in relation to the food matrix and food physico-chemical and process variables. Extensive literature indicates that the effects of combined stresses on microbial growth and survival may be additive or synergistic, when the outcome is usually significantly greater than the additive response (Tapia de Daza et al., 1996; Leistner, 2000; Ross et al., 2003), because of the disturbing action on microbial homeostasis in several respects (Leistner, 2000). doi: 10.1016/j.ces.2003.11.017, Floury, J., Desrumaux, A., and Lardires, J. Ideally, a good foam should consist of the smallest possible bubbles of equal size (Mller-Fischer and Windhab, 2005). Potential applications of high pressure homogenisation in processing of liquid milk. This last technique has been demonstrated to have a great potential to provide fresh-like products with prolonged shelf-life. Despite less efficiency, the option of no cell disruption, 21, is also included in processing wet algae biomass to save the enormous energy consumption by cell disruption. For several decades, the food research has been focused on finding new solutions to old problems to ensure food safety without losing nutrients and more recently, in response to market demand, to preserve the sensory and the freshness of the products as well as to produce innovative foods, using safe, quick, economical, and environmental friendly processes (Zamora and Guamis, 2015). Lee and Weitz [80] trapped hydrophobic silica nanoparticles in the organic phase of water-in-toluene-in-water emulsions generated in a microfluidic channel. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-0307.2004.00121.x, Lanciotti, R., Gardini, F., Sinigaglia, M., and Guerzoni, M. E. (1996). In particular, they are resistant to elevated temperatures (80C), which distinguishes them from vegetative cells. Foaming: the production of food foams involves two actions, namely, incorporation of air into a liquid or semi-liquid food and uniform dispersion of the air in the liquid as small bubbles. Potential of high pressure homogenization in the control and enhancement of proteolytic and fermentative activities of some Lactobacillus species. (2005) observed that, above 150 MPa, E. coli became more sensitive to lysozyme when this compound was added before HPH treatment compared with adding the enzyme after the treatments, indicating that HPH treatment increases effectiveness and action spectrum of lysozyme. Moreover, the fate of the surviving cells of S. enteritidis was monitored during storage at 10C and the growth or death parameters were calculated and modeled in relation to pH, NaCl concentration of the medium and the level of pressure treatment applied. Inactivation of Bacillus spores inoculated in milk by Ultra High Pressure Homogenization. The droplet size reduction is related to the homogenization pressure drop, as shown in Eq. In general, the approaches used are aimed to destabilize the microbial outer membranes of Gram-negative bacteria or to modify the chemical structure of the enzyme. doi: 10.1016/j.ces.2008.10.002, Dons, F., Esposito, L., Lenza, E., Senatore, B., and Ferrari, G. (2009c). Food Control 10, 12821288. 12, 435446. Different shapes of ultrasonic probes. In the last decade, a lot of publications appeared on modeling of homogenization valves. Because of its great potential for microbial inactivation, several authors have studied the effects of HPH or UHPH, when applied individually or in combination with other mild physical or chemical stresses (heat and H2O2), on the inactivation of Bacillus and Clostridium spores, whose genera, from a safety point of view, the most important species belong. Several HPH equipments are nowadays available and some equipment producers, such as Microfluidics (USA), Bee International (USA), Avestin (Canada), Gea Niro Soavi (Italy), and APV (UK), have proposed pilot devices able to exert a pressure of 100200 MPa, with average flow of 160 L/h at 200 MPa (Zamora and Guamis, 2015). Combining nonthermal technologies to control foodborne microorganisms. At 50 MPa homogenization pressure intervals, juice samples were collected, immediately cooled to 10C, and then serially diluted and plated on non-selective recovery media. (2007) studied the inactivation of E. coli K-12 cells, grown statically or in chemostat, when exposed to HPH processing pressures of 50 to 350 MPa in the absence or presence of the antimicrobial nisin. Efficacy of these molecules is elevated by applying nanotechnology as nanosized particles amplify penetration of drugs and cosmetic chemicals across the skin, permeate the skin through diverse mechanisms, and tailor the pharmacokinetics and bioavailability of actives per their application, thus, proposing a simplified dosing regimen for facile therapeutic interventions. The results indicated that antimicrobial activities of lactoferrin and lysozyme were enhanced and/or accelerated by HPH treatment. However, although a huge amount of data collected from model systems were available and helpful to understand the mechanisms of action of HPH against pathogenic species, many researchers tested potentialities of this technology against pathogenic species inoculated in food matrixes because the composition and viscosity of the treated food also have an indirect effect on the microbial inactivation (Table 2). 92, 53965402. Moreover, Panozzo et al. Int. High pressure homogenizers (HPH, also known as Gaulin homogenizers after the inventor): in this type of equipment, homogenization is achieved by forcing the mixture to flow at high velocity through a narrow gap. The available literature reports about the use of HPH for the reduction of foodborne pathogens in several food matrices, such as milk (Lanciotti et al., 1994; Diels et al., 2005; Hayes et al., 2005; Brinez et al., 2006a,b, 2007; Lpez-Pedemonte et al., 2006; Roig-Sagues et al., 2009), egg-based products (Velazquez-Estrada et al., 2008; Patrignani et al., 2013b), orange juice (Brinez et al., 2006b; Kumar et al., 2009; Pathanibul et al., 2009; Maresca et al., 2011), mayonnaise type products (Guerzoni et al., 2002). (2002) studied the effect of an homogenization treatment performed at 200 MPa, repeated for five cycles, on the inactivation of S. enteritidis ATCC 13047, E. coli O157:H7 ATCC35150 and L. monocytogenes LSD 105-1 when inoculated in PBS buffer at pH 7. (1994) studied the effectiveness of pressures ranging from 15 to 200 MPa, applied with a continuous homogenizer (Niro Soavi, Parma, Italy), on the cell viability of spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms in two model systems made of water 50%, oil 25%, egg yolk 25%, the first, and water 25%, oil 53%, egg yolk 22%, the second. 4], Other studies resolved the entire flow field in the homogenizer with Computational Fluid Dynamics [e.g. Ultra high pressure homogenization (UHPH) inactivation of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens spores in phosphate buffered saline (PBS) and milk. High pressure homogenization vs heat treatment: safety andfunctional properties of liquid whole egg. For example, Brinez et al. (1899). Astrobiol. Lanciotti et al. Third, both columns have modest load capacities and yields, and do not provide sufficient impurity resolution. The significant improvement of HPH equipment functionality and flexibility (capacity to work in a food processing line), the design of new valves able to work at 300400 MPa and the significant research efforts make HPH technology ready for the scaling up at industrial level for the development of new products differentiated from traditional ones by sensory and structural characteristics or functional properties. Effects of the high pressure of homogenization on some spoiling microorganisms, representative of fruit juice microflora, inoculated in saline solution. doi: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2006.01.005, Keshavarz Moore, E., Hoare, M., and Dunnill, P. (1990). Int. Length of hydrocarbon chain and antimicrobial action to gram-negative of fatty acylated lysozyme. ecplaza homogenizer pressure 64, 520532. Innovative strategies based on the use of bio-control agents to improve the safety, shelf-life and quality of minimally processed fruits and vegetables. (2009c) observed that HPH inactivation of E. coli, produced a non-additive trend for multiple pass processes at a given pressure level. Three alternative methods, including steam reforming, autothermal reforming, and aqueous-phase reforming, are considered for the hydrogen production. These Author determined also the effects of the treatments applied on the release of DPA from the spores, since spore resistance to stresses such as temperature and pressure has been correlated to their ability to retain DPA, present in the core region of the dormant spores (Setlow, 2000; Cortezzo et al., 2004). These modifications generate an amphitropic protein able to spread the cytoplasmic membrane (Vannini et al., 2004; Iucci et al., 2007). Results highlighted that the inactivation kinetics did not depend linearly on pressure, due to the distribution of individual cell resistance in the sample. 48, 261267. The first application of homogenization for the stabilization of food and dairy emulsion was presented at the Paris Worlds Fair in 1900 where Auguste Gaulin presented an invention for intimately mixing milk using pressures up to 30 MPa (Gaulin, 1899). The grinding process has the advantage of not requiring chemical pre-treatment of the fibers before the fibrillation, which is necessary in other processes (e.g., acid hydrolysis) to obtain nanofibers (Nakagaito and Yano, 2004; Pkk etal., 2007; Stenstad etal., 2008). The modification of enzyme and protein activity and functionality can greatly affect not only the food quality and ripening patterns but also the food safety feature due to the increased activities of egg and milk naturally occurring antimicrobials such as lysozyme, lactoperoxidase systems, and lactoferrin (Vannini et al., 2004; Iucci et al., 2007; Patrignani et al., 2013b) or reducing the biogenic amine content in cheeses obtained from HPH treated milk (Lanciotti et al., 2007a). (1994) showed that the relationship between survival cells and instantaneous pressure applied in medium appeared to be log-linear in a range between 40 and 200 MPa. When compared to the homogenization process, microfluidization is able to produce particles with more uniform sizes (Khalil et al., 2014). Their antimicrobial activities were tested on L. monocytogenes inoculated in milk or cultural medium. Basic aspects of food preservation by hurdle technology. Georget, E., Miller, B., Aganovic, K., Callanan, M., Heinz, V., and Mathys, A. Microbiological analyses were performed 2 h after the UHPH treatments and after 5, 8, and 15 days of storage at 4C. (2004). 63, 866871. The replacement of traditional thermal treatment can represent an advantage for the industry since this HPH is a cold technology with a lower impact on the environment, more sustainable, saving energy, time and additional costs. In fact, sub-lethal pressure levels (50 MPa) applied directly to microbial cells, increased some functional properties (i.e., hydrophobicity, resistance to simulated gastric conditions, and stomach-duodenum passage) in some probiotic strains associated to an increased maintenance of viability during refrigerated storage (Tabanelli et al., 2012, 2013, 2014). 102, 542550. ). High pressure homogenization valves are effective emulsification devices which generate sub micron droplet sizes [2, 3]. Dairy Res 73, 216226. 15, 10951104. J. Int. Z. S., Lothe, R. R., and Pandit, A. Elastic vesicular systems for enhancing cutaneous bioavailability and topical antiinflammatory effect of curcumin were designed [74]. (2015). The operating pressure is controlled by adjusting the distance between the valve and the seat. Whipping with the help of planetary mixers turning at high speed is the preferred method for the small-scale batch production of foams. Low temperature long time and high temperature short time treatments are the most commonly used hurdles for the pasteurization of fluid foods and raw materials. (2015). In fact, while in the model systems the cell recovery and growth during the subsequent incubation at 10C was allowed in many combinations of the CCD, in the real systems no recovery or growth of S. enteritidis were observed. In particular, the Authors showed that, although plate count only slightly decreased in all the strains when one cycle of HPH at 150 MPa was applied alone, the spores released significant levels of DPA (up to 28%) that could indicate a possible disruption of spore layers. (2008). FP and RL put in writing this review together consulting the available literature, patents on the topic and trying to investigate several aspects on high pressure homogenization and safety. This is generally attributed by the literature to the viscous stresses caused by the high velocity of the fluid flow, which is then impinging on the ceramic valve of the homogenizer, leading to the dissipation of a significant fraction of the mechanical energy as heat in the fluid (Floury et al., 2000; Zamora and Guamis, 2015). J. Nanosystems for drug delivery: Design, engineering, and applications, Green Synthesis, Characterization and Applications of Nanoparticles. Biotechnol. doi: 10.1111/j.1472-765X.2007.02219.x, Bevilacqua, A., Corbo, M. R., and Sinigaglia, M. (2012). J. The high pressure, in the range of 20 to 70MPa, is necessary to overcome the friction in the homogenizing head. However, such temperature increase did not result in the appearance of heat indicators in HPH treated food samples probably due the flash time of treatment of the food matrices (lower than 1 s; Floury et al., 2004; Pinho et al., 2011). 89, 125138. (2002). doi: 10.1111/j.1472-765X.2008.02527.x. J. doi: 10.1016/S0958-6946(01)00104-2, Kumar, S., Thippareddi, H., Subbiah, J., Zivanovic, S., Davidson, P. M., and Harte, F. (2009). doi: 10.3168/jds.2007-0516, Burns, P., Patrignani, F., Tabanelli, G., Vinderola, G. C., Siroli, L., Reinheimer, J.

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